Ancient Bible Index

Thirty-eight biblical manuscripts that witness God’s preservation of his Word. From the Great Isaiah Scroll a century before Christ to the Garima Gospels in the Ethiopian highlands, each entry is a witness in its own tongue — Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Syriac, Coptic, Gothic, Geʽez. The Word stands. These are the witnesses.

38

MANUSCRIPTS

10

TRADITIONS

5

TYPES

~2,150

YEARS

Featured Witnesses

Ten anchor manuscripts that map the corpus — start here.

The Great Isaiah Scroll fully unrolled, showing 54 columns of Hebrew text on parchment.

The Great Isaiah Scroll

c. 125 BCE· Hebrew OT

Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, Jerusalem

Recto side of Papyrus 52, the Rylands Fragment, showing John 18:31-33 in Greek.

𝔓52 — Rylands Library Papyrus P52

c. 125 CE (range 100–175 CE)· Greek NT papyri

John Rylands Library, University of Manchester

Folio of Papyrus 46 showing Greek text of a Pauline epistle.

𝔓46 — Chester Beatty Papyrus II

c. 200 CE (range 175–225 CE)· Greek NT papyri

Chester Beatty Library, Dublin (56 leaves) and University of Michigan (30 leaves)

Page from Codex Vaticanus with three columns of Greek uncial text from 2 Thessalonians and Hebrews.

Codex Vaticanus

c. 325–350 CE· Greek uncial codices

Vatican Library, Rome (Vat. gr. 1209)

Page of Codex Sinaiticus showing four columns of Greek uncial text.

Codex Sinaiticus

c. 330–360 CE· Greek uncial codices

British Library (347 leaves); University Library, Leipzig (43 leaves); Saint Catherine's Monastery, Sinai (12 leaves and fragments); National Library of Russia, Saint Petersburg (5 fragments)

Folio 21v of the Sinaitic Palimpsest showing Old Syriac text of Matthew 15 visible beneath the overwriting saints' lives.

The Sinaitic Palimpsest

4th century CE (underlying biblical text); 8th century overwriting· Syriac translations

Saint Catherine's Monastery, Sinai (Syr. Sin. 30)

Illuminated page from the Garima Gospels showing canon tables or an evangelist portrait.

The Garima Gospels

Late 4th to early 7th century CE — recent radiocarbon dating supports this range· Other early translations

Abba Garima Monastery, Tigray, Ethiopia (preserved since their production)

Page from Codex Argenteus showing Gothic gospel text in silver ink on deep purple vellum.

Codex Argenteus

Early 6th century CE (c. 510–520)· Other early translations

Carolina Rediviva Library, Uppsala University, Sweden

Folio from Codex Amiatinus showing the famous Ezra portrait — a scribe writing at his desk surrounded by tools and the open arc of the Law.

Codex Amiatinus

c. 700 CE (completed by 716)· Latin translations

Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence (Amiat. 1)

Page from the Aleppo Codex showing the opening of the book of Joshua in Hebrew with Tiberian vocalization.

The Aleppo Codex

c. 930 CE· Hebrew OT

Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, Jerusalem (partial)

79 manuscriptsDead Sea Scrolls →

All Manuscripts

1 Enoch (The Book of Enoch)

early_church_document

1 Enoch (The Book of Enoch)

3rd century BC through 1st century BC (compiled from earlier sources)· Second Temple Jewish

Aramaic fragments at Israel Museum (Dead Sea Scrolls); complete Ge'ez manuscripts at British Library, Bibliothèque nationale, and Ethiopian Orthodox monasteries

The Great Isaiah Scroll fully unrolled, showing 54 columns of Hebrew text on parchment.

The Great Isaiah Scroll

c. 125 BCE· Hebrew OT

Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, Jerusalem

The Nash Papyrus showing Hebrew text of the Decalogue and the Shema on a single sheet.

The Nash Papyrus

2nd century BCE (possibly 1st century BCE)· Hebrew OT

Cambridge University Library

The Community Rule (1QS)

Scroll (rule of life)

The Community Rule (1QS)

c. 100 BC (Cave 1 copy)· Qumran sectarian

Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, Jerusalem

The Habakkuk Pesher (1QpHab)

Scroll (commentary)

The Habakkuk Pesher (1QpHab)

Late first century BC· Qumran sectarian

Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, Jerusalem

The War Scroll (1QM)

Scroll (apocalyptic)

The War Scroll (1QM)

Mid first century BC· Qumran sectarian

Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, Jerusalem

The Temple Scroll (11QT)

Scroll (Torah-form)

The Temple Scroll (11QT)

Late first century BC (extant copy)· Qumran sectarian

Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, Jerusalem

The Genesis Apocryphon (1QapGen)

Scroll (parabiblical narrative)

The Genesis Apocryphon (1QapGen)

Late first century BC to early first century AD· Second Temple Jewish

Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, Jerusalem

The Hodayot (1QH)

Scroll (hymnic)

The Hodayot (1QH)

Early first century AD (extant copy)· Qumran sectarian

Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, Jerusalem

The Copper Scroll (3Q15)

Scroll (treasure list, copper)

The Copper Scroll (3Q15)

Mid first century AD· Second Temple Jewish (uncertain affiliation)

Jordan Museum, Amman (with display copy at Shrine of the Book)

Didache (The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles)

early_church_document

Didache (The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles)

Late 1st / early 2nd century AD (c. AD 70-110)· Apostolic Fathers

Codex Hierosolymitanus (Jerusalem Codex H), 1056 AD, discovered 1873 by Bryennios in Constantinople

Epistle of Barnabas

early_church_document

Epistle of Barnabas

Early 2nd century AD (c. AD 70-132)· Apostolic Fathers

Codex Sinaiticus (British Library, London); Codex Hierosolymitanus; later Greek and Latin witnesses

First Clement (Letter of Clement to the Corinthians)

early_church_document

First Clement (Letter of Clement to the Corinthians)

c. AD 96, in the closing years of Domitian's reign· Apostolic Fathers

Codex Alexandrinus (British Library, London); Codex Hierosolymitanus; Coptic and Syriac translations

Recto side of Papyrus 52, the Rylands Fragment, showing John 18:31-33 in Greek.

𝔓52 — Rylands Library Papyrus P52

c. 125 CE (range 100–175 CE)· Greek NT papyri

John Rylands Library, University of Manchester

Targum Jonathan

Translation tradition (preserved in medieval manuscripts and printed editions)

Targum Jonathan

Composed 1st to 2nd century AD; redacted by the 5th century AD· Jewish Aramaic translation (Targum)

Preserved in many manuscripts; Yemenite tradition is the principal witness

Targum Onkelos

Translation tradition (preserved in numerous medieval manuscripts and printed editions)

Targum Onkelos

Composed 1st to 2nd century AD; standard form fixed by the 5th century AD· Jewish Aramaic translation (Targum)

Preserved in many manuscripts; principal witness: British Library Or. 2363 and the Yemenite tradition

Letters of Ignatius of Antioch

early_church_document

Letters of Ignatius of Antioch

c. AD 107, written en route to martyrdom in Rome· Apostolic Fathers

Codex Mediceo-Laurentianus (Florence) and Codex Colbertinus (Paris) — middle recension; multiple later manuscripts

Aquila's Greek Translation

Translation (preserved in fragments and Hexapla witnesses)

Aquila's Greek Translation

c. AD 130· Jewish Greek translation of the Old Testament

Surviving fragments scattered: Cairo Genizah leaves at Cambridge (Taylor-Schechter Collection); Mercati Hexapla palimpsest at the Ambrosiana, Milan; quotations in church fathers

Papyrus P104 (𝔓¹⁰⁴)

Papyrus (Gospels fragment)

Papyrus P104 (𝔓¹⁰⁴)

c. AD 125-175 (mid-to-late 2nd century)· New Testament papyri

Sackler Library, University of Oxford

Papyrus P87 (𝔓⁸⁷)

Papyrus (Epistles fragment)

Papyrus P87 (𝔓⁸⁷)

c. AD 125-175 (mid-to-late 2nd century)· New Testament papyri

Institut für Altertumskunde, University of Cologne

Muratorian Fragment

early_church_document

Muratorian Fragment

Late 2nd century AD (c. 170 AD)· Western canon list

Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Milan, Italy (Codex J 101 sup.)

Page from Papyrus 66 showing Greek text of the Gospel of John with visible scribal corrections.

𝔓66 — Bodmer Papyrus II

c. 200 CE (range 150–250 CE)· Greek NT papyri

Bibliotheca Bodmeriana, Cologny, Switzerland

Fragment of Papyrus 4 showing Greek text from Luke 6:4-16.

𝔓4 + 𝔓64 + 𝔓67 — The Magdalen / Paris / Barcelona Witness

c. 200 CE (range 175–225 CE)· Greek NT papyri

Bibliothèque nationale de France (𝔓4); Magdalen College, Oxford (𝔓64); Fundación Sant Lluc Evangelista, Barcelona (𝔓67)

Folio of Papyrus 46 showing Greek text of a Pauline epistle.

𝔓46 — Chester Beatty Papyrus II

c. 200 CE (range 175–225 CE)· Greek NT papyri

Chester Beatty Library, Dublin (56 leaves) and University of Michigan (30 leaves)

Folio of Papyrus 75 showing Greek text of Luke 14 in early uncial script.

𝔓75 — Bodmer Papyrus XIV–XV

c. 175–225 CE· Greek NT papyri

Vatican Library (transferred from the Bodmer Foundation in 2007)

Folio of Papyrus 967 showing Greek text from the book of Daniel.

Papyrus 967

2nd–3rd century CE· Septuagint witnesses

Chester Beatty Library, Dublin; John Rylands Library, Manchester; Princeton University; Cologne University; Madrid

Papyrus P77 (𝔓⁷⁷)

Papyrus (Gospels fragment)

Papyrus P77 (𝔓⁷⁷)

Late 2nd to early 3rd century AD· New Testament papyri

Sackler Library, University of Oxford

Recto of Chester Beatty Papyrus I (𝔓45) showing Greek gospel text.

𝔓45 — Chester Beatty Papyrus I

3rd century CE (c. 250 CE)· Greek NT papyri

Chester Beatty Library, Dublin (most leaves); single leaf in Vienna

Folio of Papyrus 47 showing Greek text of Revelation 13–14.

𝔓47 — Chester Beatty Papyrus III

3rd century CE (c. 250–300)· Greek NT papyri

Chester Beatty Library, Dublin

Papyrus P1 (𝔓¹)

Papyrus (Gospels fragment)

Papyrus P1 (𝔓¹)

c. AD 250 (early-to-mid 3rd century)· New Testament papyri

University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia

Papyrus P115 (𝔓¹¹⁵)

Papyrus (Revelation fragments)

Papyrus P115 (𝔓¹¹⁵)

c. AD 225-275 (mid-to-late 3rd century)· New Testament papyri

Sackler Library, University of Oxford

Origen's Hexapla (Mercati Palimpsest)

Critical edition (preserved fragmentarily in palimpsest and citations)

Origen's Hexapla (Mercati Palimpsest)

Compiled c. AD 235-245 by Origen; Mercati palimpsest copied c. 9th-10th century AD· Origenic critical edition of the Old Testament

Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Milan (Mercati palimpsest); other fragments in Cambridge and elsewhere

Folio of Papyrus 72 / Bodmer VIII showing Greek text of 1–2 Peter or Jude.

𝔓72 — Bodmer Papyrus VII–VIII

3rd–4th century CE· Greek NT papyri

Vatican Library (transferred from the Bodmer Foundation)

The Crosby-Schøyen Codex (MS 193) — a 3rd–4th-century Sahidic Coptic biblical codex.

Codex (Papyrus)

Sahidic Coptic New Testament — Crosby-Schøyen Codex

3rd–4th century CE· Coptic translations

Schøyen Collection, Oslo (formerly University of Mississippi)

Oxyrhynchus Hymn (P.Oxy. XV 1786)

early_church_document

Oxyrhynchus Hymn (P.Oxy. XV 1786)

Late 3rd century AD (c. AD 260-280)· Early Egyptian Christianity

Papyrology Rooms, Sackler Library, Oxford (Bodleian Art, Archaeology and Ancient World Library)

Page from Codex Vaticanus with three columns of Greek uncial text from 2 Thessalonians and Hebrews.

Codex Vaticanus

c. 325–350 CE· Greek uncial codices

Vatican Library, Rome (Vat. gr. 1209)

Page of Codex Sinaiticus showing four columns of Greek uncial text.

Codex Sinaiticus

c. 330–360 CE· Greek uncial codices

British Library (347 leaves); University Library, Leipzig (43 leaves); Saint Catherine's Monastery, Sinai (12 leaves and fragments); National Library of Russia, Saint Petersburg (5 fragments)

Illuminated Bohairic Coptic gospel manuscript page (Walters W.592, 17th century) showing the headpiece and incipit of the Gospel of Matthew.

Bohairic Coptic New Testament

Translation tradition from 4th century onward; earliest substantial manuscripts 9th–11th century· Coptic translations

Multiple repositories — Vatican Library, British Library, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Coptic Patriarchate Library Cairo

Codex Bobiensis (k)

Codex (Gospels, fragmentary)

Codex Bobiensis (k)

Fourth century (with earlier exemplar)· African Old Latin

Biblioteca Nazionale Universitaria, Turin (G. VII. 15)

Page from Codex Vercellensis showing Old Latin gospel text of John 16 in silver ink on purple-dyed vellum.

Codex Vercellensis

Mid-4th century CE· Latin translations

Biblioteca Capitolare di Vercelli, Italy (Codex Eusebianus)

Folio 21v of the Sinaitic Palimpsest showing Old Syriac text of Matthew 15 visible beneath the overwriting saints' lives.

The Sinaitic Palimpsest

4th century CE (underlying biblical text); 8th century overwriting· Syriac translations

Saint Catherine's Monastery, Sinai (Syr. Sin. 30)

Codex Palatinus (e)

Codex (Gospels, fragmentary)

Codex Palatinus (e)

Late fourth or early fifth century· African Old Latin (with European elements)

Biblioteca Nazionale Universitaria, Turin (with leaves at Dublin and London)

Folio 0205 of Codex Bezae showing Greek and Latin parallel gospel text in sense-line layout.

Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis

5th century CE (c. 400)· Greek uncial codices

Cambridge University Library (MS Nn.2.41)

Page from Codex Washingtonianus (W/032) showing Greek uncial gospel text.

Codex Washingtonianus

Late 4th–early 5th century CE· Greek uncial codices

Smithsonian National Museum of Asian Art (Freer Gallery), Washington, D.C.

Illuminated page from the Garima Gospels showing canon tables or an evangelist portrait.

The Garima Gospels

Late 4th to early 7th century CE — recent radiocarbon dating supports this range· Other early translations

Abba Garima Monastery, Tigray, Ethiopia (preserved since their production)

Folio 41v of Codex Alexandrinus showing Greek uncial text from the Gospel of Luke.

Codex Alexandrinus

5th century CE (c. 400–440)· Greek uncial codices

British Library, London (Royal MS 1 D V–VIII)

Page from a Peshitta manuscript showing Syriac text of a New Testament book.

The Peshitta

Standardized 4th–5th century CE; earliest surviving manuscripts 5th–6th century· Syriac translations

Multiple repositories — British Library (Add MS 14470 et al.), Vatican Library, St. Catherine's Monastery, Cambridge

Folio 138r of Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus showing the palimpsested Greek biblical text under later Syriac sermon overwriting.

Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus

5th century CE (c. 450)· Greek uncial codices

Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris (Grec 9)

Page from the Curetonian Gospels showing Old Syriac gospel text in Estrangela script.

The Curetonian Gospels

5th century CE· Syriac translations

British Library, London (Add MS 14451)

Codex Veronensis (b)

Codex (Gospels)

Codex Veronensis (b)

Late fifth century· European Old Latin

Biblioteca Capitolare, Verona (MS VI)

The Cotton Genesis

Codex (illuminated Genesis, fire-damaged)

The Cotton Genesis

Late fifth or early sixth century· Alexandrian illuminated LXX

British Library, London (Cotton MS Otho B VI)

Page from Codex Argenteus showing Gothic gospel text in silver ink on deep purple vellum.

Codex Argenteus

Early 6th century CE (c. 510–520)· Other early translations

Carolina Rediviva Library, Uppsala University, Sweden

Codex Coislinianus

Codex (Pauline epistles, fragmentary)

Codex Coislinianus

Sixth century· Alexandrian

Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris (Coislin 202) and dispersed leaves in Athos, Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Kyiv, and Turin

The Rossano Gospels

Codex (illuminated Gospels)

The Rossano Gospels

Sixth century· Byzantine purple-codex tradition

Museo Diocesano, Rossano, Calabria

The Sinope Gospels (Codex Sinopensis)

Codex (Matthew, fragmentary)

The Sinope Gospels (Codex Sinopensis)

Sixth century· Byzantine purple-codex tradition

Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris (Suppl. Gr. 1286)

The Vienna Genesis

Codex (illuminated Genesis)

The Vienna Genesis

Sixth century· Byzantine illuminated LXX

Austrian National Library, Vienna

Folio 38r of Codex Claromontanus showing parallel Greek and Latin text of a Pauline epistle.

Codex Claromontanus

6th century CE· Greek uncial codices

Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris (Grec 107)

Page 71 of Codex Marchalianus showing Greek Septuagint text of an Old Testament prophet with Hexaplaric marginal notes.

Codex Marchalianus

6th century CE· Septuagint witnesses

Vatican Library, Rome (Vat. gr. 2125)

Pages 296-297 of Codex Fuldensis showing Latin Vulgate New Testament text.

Codex Fuldensis

546 CE· Latin translations

Hessische Landesbibliothek, Fulda, Germany

The Rabbula Gospels

Codex (illuminated Gospels)

The Rabbula Gospels

586 AD· Syriac (Peshitta)

Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence (Plut. I, 56)

Book of Durrow

Codex (illuminated Gospels)

Book of Durrow

Late 7th century AD (c. AD 680)· Insular Gospels (Vulgate)

Trinity College Library, Dublin

Folio from Codex Amiatinus showing the famous Ezra portrait — a scribe writing at his desk surrounded by tools and the open arc of the Law.

Codex Amiatinus

c. 700 CE (completed by 716)· Latin translations

Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence (Amiat. 1)

Lindisfarne Gospels

illuminated_manuscript

Lindisfarne Gospels

c. AD 698-720· Insular Christianity

British Library, London (Cotton MS Nero D.IV)

St. Chad Gospels

illuminated_manuscript

St. Chad Gospels

Early 8th century AD (c. AD 730)· Insular Christianity

Lichfield Cathedral

Codex Boernerianus

Codex (Pauline epistles)

Codex Boernerianus

Ninth century· Western (Old Latin) and Byzantine

Sächsische Landesbibliothek, Dresden

Codex Cyprius

Codex (Gospels)

Codex Cyprius

Ninth century· Byzantine

Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris (Grec 63)

Book of Armagh

illuminated_manuscript

Book of Armagh

c. AD 807-808· Insular Christianity

Trinity College Dublin (MS 52)

Page from Minuscule 33 showing Greek minuscule script with marginal notes.

Codex (Minuscule)

Minuscule 33 — Queen of the Cursives

9th century CE· Greek minuscules

Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris (Grec 14)

Page 12 of the Cairo Codex of the Prophets with Hebrew text and Masoretic notes.

The Cairo Codex of the Prophets

895 CE· Hebrew OT

Karaite Synagogue collection (formerly), now disputed; portions in the Cambridge University Library Cairo Genizah collection

Page from the Aleppo Codex showing the opening of the book of Joshua in Hebrew with Tiberian vocalization.

The Aleppo Codex

c. 930 CE· Hebrew OT

Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, Jerusalem (partial)

Paris Psalter

illuminated_manuscript

Paris Psalter

Mid-10th century AD· Byzantine Christianity

Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris (Grec 139)

Page from the Damascus Pentateuch with three-column Hebrew text and Masorah marginalia.

The Damascus Pentateuch

10th century CE· Hebrew OT

National Library of Israel, Jerusalem

The Khabouris Codex

Codex (New Testament)

The Khabouris Codex

Tenth to twelfth century· Syriac (Peshitta, Eastern)

Private collection (United States); high-resolution facsimile online

Christ enthroned, illumination from the Echmiadzin Gospels, 989 CE.

The Echmiadzin Gospels

989 CE (text); 6th century CE (ivory cover)· Other early translations

Matenadaran (Mesrop Mashtots Institute of Ancient Manuscripts), Yerevan, Armenia

The Mughni Gospels

Codex (illuminated Gospels)

The Mughni Gospels

Eleventh century· Armenian

Matenadaran (Mesrop Mashtots Institute of Ancient Manuscripts), Yerevan

Decorative carpet page from the Leningrad Codex with geometric micrography in Hebrew letters.

The Leningrad Codex

1008 CE· Hebrew OT

National Library of Russia, Saint Petersburg

Folio from a Byzantine gospel minuscule manuscript representative of the late Byzantine textual tradition Family 13 emerged from.

Codex (Minuscule)

Family 13 — The Ferrar Group

11th–15th century CE· Greek minuscules

Multiple repositories (Paris, Vienna, Florence, others) — the family encompasses 13, 69, 124, 174, 230, 346, 543, 788, 826, 828, 983, 1689, 1709 and related manuscripts

Folio 1r of Minuscule 1 showing Greek minuscule gospel text.

Codex (Minuscule)

Minuscule 1 — Family 1 Archetype

12th century CE· Greek minuscules

Universitätsbibliothek Basel (AN IV.2)

1925 photograph of a Samaritan Pentateuch showing Hebrew text in distinctive Samaritan script.

The Samaritan Pentateuch

Manuscript tradition; earliest extant codices c. 12th–13th century CE; the Abisha Scroll of Nablus is claimed to be much older but its date is disputed (likely 11th–14th century)· Distinct textual traditions

Samaritan community, Nablus and Holon (Abisha Scroll); other manuscripts in British Library, Cambridge University Library, Russian National Library